Introduction to the Psalms

Reading the Psalms

There may be no more familiar book in all of literature than the Book of Psalms. Out of all of the sixty-six books of the Bible, it’s doubtful that there is any book that has been read and spoken more than this collection of 150 prayers, songs, and poems. Their words have inspired men and women to lead with courage, they have given comfort to the grieving, and they have provided a language to communicate both inexpressible joys and excruciating sorrows. More than sentimental poems, they shed light on historical events, they reveal the complex relationship between the Creator and his creation, and they provide a framework for viewing the world.

Where does one begin in a study of this remarkable and unique book? Let’s start with the right lenses. Lenses allow us to see things more clearly and from different perspectives. I am near-sighted, and since the third grade, I’ve needed lenses to correct my vision so things at a distance would be in focus. More recently, my optometrist diagnosed me with presbyopia (old eyes!), and I now wear reading glasses to correct my near vision. When I go outside, I need sunglasses to limit glare and enable me to see in the brightest sunlight. You can watch a 3D movie without the special glasses, but when you put them on -- what a difference! The lenses on the Hubble space telescope have allowed us to see into the farthest reaches of the universe. Likewise, an electron microscope allows us to see things that are invisible otherwise. Night-vision glasses, infrared vision -- all of these lenses make a difference in how we see things, causing us to notice things that we otherwise might have missed.

I want to suggest that when you read the psalms you consciously put on and take off six different lenses. First put on the lens of the author and attempt to arrive at the author’s intended meaning. Many of the psalms begin with a superscription that suggests a context -- a time, place or event that provided the impetus for composing the psalm (e.g. Psalm 51). It might have been a battlefield, a cave, a desert, or a temple, but all of the psalms have a backstory that can illuminate the text. Others have hints of the historical setting within the text itself allowing the reader to make some educated guesses. Ascertaining the authorship and context helps us answer the critical who, what, when, where, why, and how questions critical to determining the meaning of a text. With the help of a sanctified imagination we can read between the lines and connect the author’s joys and struggles with our own.

The second time you read through a psalm, put on the wide-angle lens of theology. Look for what the psalm tells you about God -- his character, his nature, his relationship with his creation. When Moses declares in Psalm 90:2, “from everlasting to everlasting You are God”, he is making a profound theological statement about the eternal nature of God. When David says, “You knit me together in my mother’s womb” (139:13) he is saying something about God’s immanence and personal care for us. The Levite who thirsted for God as the deer panted for water, speaks for an entire nation on the run from her enemies (42:1) in his desire to meet with God and be refreshed even while far from the temple. As the psalmist recounts the significant events of Israel’s history -- the Exodus, the wilderness wandering, the conquest, the establishment of the Davidic monarchy, the exile, and the return -- he is recounting how God broke into history.

Next, consider the Book of Psalms from the perspective of an editor and compiler. The Jewish people have always had a strong bias in favor of preserving the text, so I am not suggesting that major editing was done to the text itself. However, it’s clear that the final structure of the collection of Psalms was shaped with a theological purpose in mind. Over its 1,000 year history, the Psalter went through several editions (e.g. Psalm 72:20). Who decided which psalms would be included in the final collection and how would they be arranged? For example, the psalms are divided into five books, likely to correspond to the five books of the law. The use of chiasm in their arrangement draws attention to centrals truths among the various groupings. Reading the psalms straight through reveals a story arc that moves from conflict to resolution over its many pages. An in-depth study of the arrangement of the psalms reveals a complex but intentional ordering to communicate truth in subtle ways but profound ways.

One of the most fascinating set of lenses to wear when reading the psalms are the “Jesus glasses”. We can be quite confident that Jesus grew up hearing, reading, praying, and singing the Psalms. Raised in a Torah observant Jewish home, attending weekly synagogue services, at the age of twelve he was bright enough to baffle the learned teachers at the temple. It is likely the he was fluent in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, so there is no doubt that Jesus was intimately familiar with the Psalms. It is not speculation to suggest that he had prayed every one of them at some point in his life. Sometimes we know exactly when he prayed them (e.g. 22:1 as he hung on the cross), but other times we can make some reasonable guesses. For example, the Egyptian Hallel [Psalms 113-118] was traditionally read at the Passover meal which Jesus shared with his disciples. Thinking about how Jesus prayed these psalms to the Father can be an enlightening exercise, yielding insights about the understanding that Jesus had of his own identity and reminding us that Jesus shared fully in our humanity. Jesus quoted the Psalms extensively in his ministry and gave the two disciples on the Emmaus road a lesson about himself from them (Luke 24:44). Jesus prayed the psalms himself and we can pray the same words with him when we pray the psalms today.

The apostles were overhearing Jesus pray the psalms and when it came time to preach the good news and eventually write the New Testament, they were quick to turn to the Psalms for material. No other book of the Old Testament is quoted by the authors of the New Testament more than the book of Psalms. Peter quotes from Psalm 16 in the very first gospel sermon on the day of Pentecost, and the author of Hebrews relies heavily on the Psalms to remind his readers that Jesus came to complete the temple worship to which the Psalms were central. So, as we read a psalm, we should also consider how the first Christians would have prayed the Psalms. The first Christians were Jewish, and like Jesus, had prayed the psalms daily to Yahweh. No doubt where they had once only seen Yahweh as the LORD of the Psalms, they were now seeing Jesus take his place on the throne. The songs of praise to Yahweh became the songs of praise to Yeshua, as he had come to complete them. The Book of Psalms became the songbook of the early church (Acts 4:23-31) and continued to be the primary source of the language of singing and worship throughout much of the history of the church.

The final lens is the one that we wear every day. It is our modern worldview and our own unique life experiences. In spite of rapid technological change, our life experiences are common to those of the psalmist 3,000 years in the past. Floods, fires, famines, war, betrayal, sickness, and death still plague mankind, and the psalms give us the words to speak to God in each of those moments. The psalms run the gamut of human emotion, from deep lament to unspeakable ecstasy. These ancient prayers are always contemporary. In every generation they have remained relevant because they speak timeless truth to mortal men.  

So as we meditate on the psalms, we need to take the time to change glasses each time we read them. First, read the psalm with the author’s situation in mind. Then read the psalm as a theologian, gleaning the big truths about God. Next, read the psalms like a worship leader who is putting together a collection of prayers to assist his community in worship. Then envision Jesus praying the psalms and seeing himself in them. Read them as the early church did, ancient words now completed in Christ. Read them as your own prayers, conversations with the eternal God of the universe.

The Names of the Book of Psalms

The Hebrew title of the Book of Psalms is Sepher Tehillim (Book of Praises), suggesting the central theme of the book is praise. Other Hebrew terms that are used in reference to the psalms are: tephilloth (prayers) and mizmor (a song to be accompanied by musical instruments). The Greek equivalent of mizmor is psalmos. Jesus referred to the book as psalmoi (Luke 24:44), and it is from this Greek word that the English word “psalm” is derived.  This is the title by which the New Testament authors knew the book. That many of the psalms were meant to be sung is clear from the fact that 29 of the psalms are identified as “songs” (shir in Hebrew). In a fifth century AD copy of the Greek translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint, the book is called the Psalterion, meaning “stringed instrument. The English word Psalter is derived from this, and it is a common way to refer to the entire collection of Psalms.

The Arrangement of the Psalms

The Hebrew Bible is divided into three sections -- the Torah (law), the Nevi’im (prophets -- former and latter), and the Ketuvim (writings). This is abbreviated with an acronym of the first three letters of each division, referred to as the Tanakh  (ta’nak). The Psalms are located at the beginning of the third section of the Hebrew Bible, the Ketuvim. The Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible is known as the Septuagint and is abbreviated as the LXX (a reference to its 70 translators). This translation was made some time in the 3rd century BC. Since the early Christians followed the LXX order of books, this is the order with which are familiar today -- 5 books of law, 12 books of history, 5 books of poetry, 5 major prophets, and 12 minor prophets (5, 12, 5, 5, 12 to help remember them). In this arrangement the Psalms fall in the very center of the Old Testament. It should be noted that the numbers 3, 5, and 12 all have symbolic significance in Hebrew poetry.

The Book of Psalms is actually a collection of five books of psalms. Their division into five books probably has something to do with the fact that there are five books of the Law and the Psalms are seen as a companion to those books of the Law. Just as the five books of the Law begin the Tanakh, so the five books of Psalms begin the Ketuvim. The 150 Psalms are divided into five books, with each book ending with a brief doxology (literally, “word of glory”, an expression of praise). In fact, the entire collection of Psalms ends with five psalms of doxology Psalms 146-150).  Books 1-3 tend to have more songs of lament while Books 4-5 contain more songs of praise.

Book 1 (Psalms 1-41)

Book 2 (Psalms 42-72)

Book 3 (Psalms 73-89)

Book 4 (Psalms 90-106)

Book 5 (Psalms 107-150)

The Psalms as Torah

The Hebrew word Torah is usually read as “law” in English translations. However, the meaning of the word is much broader than the application of rules for life, as law suggests. It is more accurate to think of Torah as “instruction”, and the Psalms certainly have a great deal of instruction. Some psalms are filled with practical wisdom for living, something like the book of Proverbs. Others instruct the reader in theology as the psalmists wrestle with the big questions of life. Many psalms declare a philosophical and cosmological framework on which to arrange our lives -- I call them “worldview” psalms.  In this sense Torah might better be translated in some contexts as “revelation.”

Three psalms in particular have as their focus the Torah of God. Psalm 1 invites us to meditate on the law. Psalm 19 extols the benefits of the law; and Psalm 119 is an extended meditation on the law. Is it a coincidence that their very numbering and ordering draw attention to them? Psalms 1, 19, and 119 are the three Torah Psalms. Psalm 119 is the longest “chapter” of the Bible (although the individual psalms should not be referred to as “chapters”, but simply as “Psalm 1,2,3, etc.”). Psalm 119 is an acrostic meditation on the Torah of God. An acrostic is a poetic device that arranges the psalm based on the Hebrew alphabet. In the case of Psalm 119, each stanza begins with a successive letter of the Hebrew alphabet forming 22 stanzas. Each verse (with the exception of two) contains a synonym for the Torah, and every word in Psalm 19 can be found in Psalm 119. The psalm eclipses all others in its magnitude and complexity; layered with meaning, it is deeply devotional. It occupies a critical place in the overall arrangement of the collection of Psalms. In fact, at some point in the development of the book, Psalm 119 may have been the last psalm (McCann, The Psalms as Torah. p. 32).

Characteristics of Hebrew Poetry

1.      Parallelism

A typical Hebrew verse consists of two lines (although there are variations to this). While there are a variety of rhythmic patterns (meters) that one typically associates with poetry, Hebrew poetry seeks to present a balance of ideas in successive lines rather than a balance of sound or uniformity in the number of syllables per verse. It is this rhythm of ideas that forms the backbone of Hebrew poetry. One of the wonderful aspects of this structure is that it allows the Psalms to be readily translated into other languages because the poetry does not depend on sound and meter for its beauty and meaning. This rhythm of ideas is known as parallelism, and it is the dominant feature of Hebrew poetry.

The fundamental definition of parallelism is that the successive line(s) of a verse corresponds in some way to the first line. Students of Hebrew poetry have identified at least seven different kinds of parallelism, and while there is some overlap in terminology, the essential ingredient is that there is some kind of correspondence between the lines of Hebrew verse. The effect of parallelism is three-fold. First, it helps to slow the reader down by sustaining the thought, helping in the process of meditation as the reader carefully chews on the meaning of each verse. Second, it assists in interpreting the meaning of the verse. For instance, while one line may be unclear in meaning, the corresponding line may be more obvious, thus clarifying the obscure. Third, it has been suggested by Robert Alter (The Art of Biblical Poetry) that the second and succeeding lines of a verse often indicate either intensification or specificity. For example,

            On my bed I remember you

I think of you through the watches of the night. (Psalm 63:6)

 Types of Parallelism

1. Synonymous -- the thought of the first line is repeated (34:1)

2. Antithetic -- the thought of the first line is contrasted (1:6)

3. Synthetic -- the second line enhances the first (55:6)

4. Climactic -- the succeeding line moves beyond the first to a heightened emphasis (55:12,13)

5. Stair-like -- a word or phrase of the first verse is repeated in the second as a stepping-stone to the finished statement (29:1)

6. Emblematic -- a figurative comparison (42:1)

7. Inverted or Chiastic -- there is an inversion of the order of words in parallel lines (51:1)

2.     Imagery and Figurative Language

One of the common features of any type of poetry is the use of concrete imagery. Images work by creating associations. For example, in Psalm 1:3 the “blessed person” is associated with a tree.

He is like a tree
    planted by streams of water
that yields its fruit in its season,
    and its leaf does not wither.
In all that he does, he prospers.

Poetic imagery accomplishes the two-fold purpose of evoking emotion and engaging the mind. In this verse, the emotions evoked are the feelings of confidence, happiness, and security. In addition, the image of a fruitful tree planted by a flowing river engages the mind by asking the reader to consider the meaning of the association in all of its various aspects. This encourages the process of meditation – deep reflection on the meaning of the text by considering the nature of these associations. Sometimes images can have multiple meanings depending on the context. For example, the Hebrew phrase right hand as in “man of your right hand” (Psalm 80:17) can mean favored. The right hand is also associated with strength and power as in “your right hand supported me” (Psalm 18:35).

The psalmist also employs mythopoeic imagery (the figurative use of mythological language for polemical purposes). Psalm 74 provides a good example of this:

13 You divided the sea by your might;
    you broke the heads of the sea monsters on the waters.
14 You crushed the heads of Leviathan;
    you gave him as food for the creatures of the wilderness.

This language is foreign to the modern reader but would have been readily understood in its historical context east as a reference to the prevailing creation mythology in the ancient near east.

3.     Chiasm

Another way that the Hebrew poets communicated meaning was through a literary structure known as chiasm (or chiasmus). The term comes from the Greek word that begins with the letter, chi, which is shaped like an “X”, and it is found in many types of classical poetry.

A simple chiastic pattern is expressed A B B A as in Psalm 2:10.

                               A             B

 Now therefore, O kings, be wise;

          B             A              

be warned, O rulers of the earth.(2:10)

This literary technique functions to create symmetry and balance between two parallel lines of poetry or across an entire psalm. When it occurs in a single verse it disrupts the typical pattern (ABAB) and may serve to create focus and draw attention to key themes of the psalm by breaking the rhythmic ideas. Chiasms may be 4 point (as above) or 2 point (ABCBA) with the central point receiving focus. Taken as a whole Psalms 1 and 2 each have a two-point chiastic structure.

4.     Terseness

In Hebrew poetry, grammatical markers are less frequent than in prose. Words are not wasted in poetry with the psalmist frequently dropping nouns or verbs, omitting conjunctions and other “grammar glue”, While this is often difficult to see in translation, it is a feature of Hebrew poetry that must be considered. Hebrew poets go out of their way to say things succinctly, and these gaps can present challenges in interpretation.

The poetic Structure of a Psalm

The terminology used in discussing the structure of Hebrew poetry is the same as that which is generally used in relation to poetry.

Foot -- the smallest unit of thought, a single word or phrase in a line

Line (stich, colon, verset) -- a single grouping of words and phrases

Verse (distich) -- usually two or three lines

Stanza (strophe) -- a group of verses sharing a common theme

Song -- an entire psalm

Sometimes there is an absence of a clear structure, or it may seem that something has been left out. This doesn’t mean that the text has been corrupted. There are parallels in Ugaritic demonstrating that the asymmetrical pattern in the Psalms in not at all unusual.  (Tesh & Zorn)

Other Literary Devices

The following literary devices are found in all kinds of literature and they are features of Hebrew poetry as well. Students of the psalms should be familiar with each of these terms as they occur frequently in commentaries and academic journals on the Psalms.

Acrostic – in which a group of verses begin each with a successive letter of the Hebrew alphabet (34,119)

Allegory – a figurative treatment of one subject under the image of another (80:8)

Alliteration – the repetition of letters or syllables having similar sounds

Anaphora – repetition for emphasis or for dramatic effect (118:10,11)

Anthropomorphism – assigning human form and psychological characteristics to the divine (2:4)

Apostrophe – addressing either one not present, inanimate objects, or imaginary persons (“Tremble, O earth, at the presence of the Lord”) (114:7)

Assonance – a correspondence in the sound of words in terms of their vowels and used in repetition or dominance of a single vowel sound

Hyperbole – an obvious exaggeration for emphasis (119:136)

Irony – in which the actuality is the opposite of what is anticipated. (115:4,5)

Litotes – an understatement to increase the effect, or an emphasis of an idea by denying its opposite (51:17)

Metaphor – a comparison not to be taken literally but made to suggest a resemblance (31:3)

Metonymy – the use of one word when another with which it is associated is really meant (23:5)

Personification – attributing characteristics of persons to inanimate objects (96:12)

Simile – the expressing of a resemblance, usually with the use of the words “like” or “as” (1:3)

Synecdoche – a part is put for the whole or the whole for the part (52:4)

The Origin of the Psalms

There is quite a bit of debate in Psalm studies regarding the origin of the collection. As a collection of poetry that spans 1,000 years (from Moses to the post-exilic Levite), there is room for a lot of opinions as to its origin and final composition. Edward Tesh and Walter Zorn summarize these five views in their excellent commentary on the Psalms.

1.     The Psalms are distinctively individual productions. This is suggested by the personal nature of the superscriptions accompanying some of the psalms. Seventy-three of the psalms are ascribed to David.

2.     The Psalms are late compositions accompanying advanced Judaism. This view is based on the premise that any advanced concept of religion must be late. Proponents of this view attribute many of the psalms to priestly authors in the post-exilic time period.

3.     The Psalms are forms of liturgy in ritualistic worship. While it is true that many psalms are well-suited to corporate worship and were certainly used during the festival seasons, it does not explain all of them.

4.     The Psalms are songs for all seasons. In other words, there is truth in all three of the above explanations.

5.     The Psalms are a collection of collections. This view states that over the centuries various collections of psalms were made (by David, Hezekiah, and others) and these were ultimately compiled and shaped by a post-exilic priest or group of priests -- perhaps Ezra. As evidence for this, proponents cite Psalm 72:20 -- “This concludes the prayers of David son of Jesse”. This suggests an earlier collection of Davidic psalms was already in place when the final editor assembled the Psalter.

Characteristics of the Five Books of Psalms

The Psalter is divided into five books, each ending in a doxology. They differ in many ways, including their use of the divine names, YHWH (LORD), and the more generic Elohim (God). The following is a summary of the characteristics of each book.  

Book 1 is the earliest collection and includes references to Solomon’s temple. The superscriptions indicate that most of them are “of David”.

Book 2 is called the “Elohistic Psalter” because of the rarity of the use of the divine name Yahweh (YHWH). It begins with psalms by the sons of Korah (42-49) that would seem to be appropriate for the exile, but then the remainder of the book are largely psalms “of David”.  

Book 3 consists almost entirely of psalms of Asaph (with the exception of four by the sons of Korah, two by David, and Psalm 89 of Ethan). It is also Elohistic and may have been attached to Book 2. It has an emphasis that is typical of the prophets. Interestingly, the word Asaph means “collector”, but it is also the name of a person (or clan) known to be associated with temple music.  

Books 4 & 5 are grouped together and have a rather arbitrary division between psalms 106 and 107.  It contains a great number of “orphan” psalms, (i.e. psalms with no titles).  Many of these were intended for use in temple services or in the seasonal festivals (Songs of Ascents [120-134] and the Hallels [113-118, 135-136]). Psalms in these last two books often begin or end with the cry of praise, “Hallelujah!” (Praise YHWH). Generally speaking, Books 1-3 are dominated by laments, where Books 4-5 are dominated by praise.  

Superscriptions and musical terms

Many of the psalms begin with a superscription, that is, a reference to a person, historical occasion, the type of psalm (e.g. mizmor, maskil, michtam, shiggaion), a music reference, or an occasion for use in worship. There is debate about the authenticity and accuracy of these superscriptions, but it should be kept in mind that they are found in the oldest manuscripts and they are included in text of the first verse of the psalm itself. Since they seem to be integral to text of the psalm, one should be hesitant to dismiss them as later scribal additions.

The word selah occurs 71 times within the psalms, mostly in Books 1-3. It is derived from the Hebrew root “lift up”, but the exact meaning is unknown.  This has led to a great deal of speculation as to its significance. We can’t be certain, but the following three meanings are possible based on its use in context:

• Pause - perhaps for a rest or a repeat of the previous stanza

• Lifting up in voices - and increase in the volume or intensity of the singing

• Instrumental interlude - a pause in the singing for an instrumental break

Types of Psalms (Genres)

Psalms may be classified by type or genre. Some psalms are easier to classify than others, and some contain elements of multiple genres. The following is one common classification of the Psalms by genre (Gunkel):

5 Major Categories

• Hymns of Praise – These songs of devotion are directed to Yahweh in recognition of his majesty, his power, and his goodness. They are not designed to appease God (as in pagan hymns) but to be an outpouring of a heart filled with wonder and awe. These include Enthronement psalms – “YHWH is king” (also called “entrance” psalms) and Songs of Zion – psalms which reference Jerusalem as the “city of God”.

• Laments of the Community – These are prayers of complaint, expressing a need for help, a curse on enemies, and often trust in a promise and praise in advance to God for deliverance.

• Royal Psalms (pertaining to an earthly monarch) – These psalms reflect the prominence of the king as a central figure and are often viewed as having messianic significance.

• Laments of the Individual – These are prayers of lament because of enemies, illness, and desperate situations. There are 34 psalms in this category.

• Individual Songs of Thanksgiving –These psalms are similar to hymns of praise but are expressed in the first person. These hymns sing of God’s faithfulness in the past and offer thanksgiving for God’s present activity.

7 Minor Categories

• Imprecatory psalms – These psalms pronouncing blessings and cursings and are also called “psalms of anger” or “psalms of wrath” (Psalms 52, 54, 58, 10, et. al.)

• Pilgrim songs – Identified as “songs of ascent”(degrees), these psalms were used in the seasonal pilgrimages to Jerusalem (Psalms 120-134).

• National Songs of Thanksgiving – These songs celebrate victory over national enemies and gratitude for the harvest (Psalms 65 and 68)

• Historical Recital – Partly didactic in purpose, these psalms preserve and teach history to future generations (Psalm 78).

• Psalms of the Law (Torah) – These psalms which focus on “the law of the LORD” (Psalms 1,19,119).

• Prophetic Psalms – While not necessarily envisioning the future, these psalms contain content typical of the prophets of pronouncing warning and judgment (Psalm 50)

• Wisdom Psalms – These psalms that are proverbial in nature (Psalms 1,37).

Messianic Psalms

Many of the royal psalms can also be classified as messianic because they came to reflect the messianic hope among the people from the time of the exile through the first century AD. These psalms were considered messianic before the time of Jesus, and the New Testament authors make particular use of them to make their case that Jesus was indeed the messiah as prophesied in the psalms.

Works referenced:

Alter, Robert.  The Art of Biblical Poetry.  (Basic Books, 2011).

McCann, J. Clinton Jr.  A Theological Introduction to the Book of Psalms: The Psalms as Torah.  (Abington Press: Nashville, 1993)

Tesh, S. Edward & Zorn, Walter D.  The College Press NIV Commentary: Psalms Volume 1. (Joplin, MO: College Press, 1999)  pp. 24-40